PAPER

makalah simantik 

CHAPTER I

BEGINNING

      A.    OPENING

There are two main branches of linguistics that specifically concern the word ie etymology, the study of the origin of the word, and semantics or the science of meaning, the study of the meaning of the word. Between the two sciences,etymology isalreadyalong established discipline (established), whereas semantic is relatively new.

The word semantic comes from the Greek sema meaning sign or symbol (sign). "Semantics" was first used by a French philologist named Michel Breal in 1883. The semantic word is then agreed upon as a term used for the field of linguistics that studies the linguistic signs with the things it marks. Therefore, the word semantics can be interpreted as the science of meaning or meaning, ie one of the three levels of language analysis: phonology, grammar, and semantics (Chaer, 1994: 2).

A word, such as a book, consists of the symbolic element of bumyi [b-u-k-u] and the concept or mental image of objects (objects) called books. According to Ogden and Richards (1923), in the classic work on "triangular semantic theory", the link between symbols, mental images or concepts, and references or objects can be explained by the following drawings and descriptions.

     B.     AIM

a.       What is symantec?

b.      Historical of symantec.

c.       Kind of symantec.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A. Understanding     

a.      Semantec

         Semantics (from Greeksēmantiká, neuter plural of sēmantikós)  is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata.

Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used by humans to express themselves through language. Other forms of semantics include the semantics of programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.

“Semantics is the study of meaning. There are two types of meaning: conceptual meaning and associative meaning. The conceptual meaning of the word sea is something that is large, filled with saltwater, and so on. This meaning is true for everyone. The associative meaning might be pirates, shipwreck, storms, battle and so on. These associations vary from person to person. The conceptual meaning of concise is expressed in few words, but concise being a good thing is part of the associative meaning.”

(Semantik adalah studi tentang makna. Ada dua jenis makna:

 makna konseptual dan makna asosiatif. Arti konseptual dari kata sea adalah sesuatu yang besar, 

penuh dengan air asin, dan seterusnya. Makna ini berlaku untuk semua orang. Arti asosiatif mungkin

 berupa bajak laut, kapal karam, badai, pertempuran dan sebagainya. Asosiasi ini bervariasi dari 

orang ke orang. Makna konseptual ringkas diungkapkan dalam beberapa kata, namun ringkas

 menjadi hal yang baik adalah bagian dari makna asosiatif.)

The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many formal inquiries, over a long period of time, most notably in the field of formal semantics. In linguistics, it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts.^[3] Within this view, sounds, facial expressions, body language, proxemics have semantic (meaningful) content, and each has several branches of study. In written language, such things as paragraph structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other forms of language, there is other semantic content.

The formal study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry, including lexicology, syntax, pragmatics, etymology and others, although semantics is a well-defined field in its own right, often with synthetic properties.^[4] In philosophy of language, semantics and reference are related fields. Further related fields include philology, communication, and semiotics. The formal study of semantics is therefore complex.

Semantics contrasts with syntax, the study of the combinatorics of units of a language (without reference to their meaning), and pragmatics, the study of the relationships between the symbols of a language, their meaning, and the users of the language.

In international scientific vocabulary semantics is also called semasiology.

B.     Word Meaning

Word meaning has played a somewhat marginal role in early contemporary philosophy of language, which was primarily concerned with the structural features of sentences and showed less interest in the format of lexical representations and in the nature of the word-level input to compositional processes. Nowadays, it is well-established that the way we account for word meaning is bound to have a major impact in tipping the balance in favor or against a given picture of the fundamental properties of human language. This entry provides an overview of the way issues related to lexical meaning have been explored in analytic philosophy and a summary of relevant research on the subject in neighboring scientific domains. Though the main focus will be on philosophical problems, contributions from linguistics, psychology, neuroscience and artificial intelligence will also be considered, since research on word meaning is highly interdisciplinary.

Every word or lexeme has a meaning, but in its use the meaning of the word becomes clear only if the word is already in the context of its sentence or the context of the situation. Unlike words, the term has a clear, definite, undoubted meaning, even without the context of a sentence. It is therefore often said that the term is context free. Just keep in mind that a term is only used in a particular area of science or activity. The difference between the meaning of words and terms can be seen from the following example
(1) His hands are injured with broken glass.
(2) His arms were injured with broken glass.
The words hand and arm in both sentences are synonymous or meaning the same. But in the field of medicine the two words have different meanings. The hand means a part of the wrist up to the fingers; while the arm is part of the wrist up to the base of the shoulder

C.    Semantic field

A semantic field is a set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning. Also known as a word field, lexical field, field of meaning, and semantic system.

Linguist Adrienne Lehrer has defined semantic field more specifically as "a set of lexemes which cover a certain conceptual domain and which bear certain specifiable relations to one another" (1985).

Examples And Observations

• "The words in a semantic field share a common semantic property. Most often, fields are defined by subject matter, such as body parts, landforms, diseases, colors, foods, or kinship relations. . . .

"Let's consider some examples of semantic fields. . . . The field of 'stages of life' is arranged sequentially, though there is considerable overlap between terms (e.g., child, toddler) as well as some apparent gaps (e.g., there are no simple terms for the different stages of adulthood). Note that a term such as minor or juvenile belongs to a technical register, a term such as kid or tot to a colloquial register, and a term such as sexagenarian or octogenarian to a more formal register. The semantic field of 'water' could be divided into a number of subfields; in addition, there would appear to be a great deal of overlap between terms such as sound/fjord or cove/harbor/bay."
(Laurel J. Brinton, The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction. John Benjamins, 2000)

• Metaphorsand Semantic Fields
  "Cultural attitudes to particular areas of human activity can often be seen in the choices of metaphor used when that activity is discussed. A useful linguistic concept to be aware of here is that of semantic field, sometimes called just field, or field of meaning. . . .
  
  "The semantic field of war and battle is one that sports writers often draw on. Sport, particularly football, in our culture is also associated with conflict and violence."
  (Ronald Carter, Working With Texts: A Core Introduction to Language Analysis. Routledge, 2001)
• More and Less Marked Members of a Semantic Field: Color Terms
  "In a semantic field, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. Consider the following sets, which together form the semantic field of color terms (of course, there are other terms in the same field):

1.      blue, red, yellow, green, black, purple2. indigo, saffron, royal blue, aquamarine, bisque

D.    Sinonym And Opposites

sinonym and opposites are essentially the same as the referential meanings because the denotative meanings are commonly given explanations as meaning corresponding to observations by sight, smell, hearing, feelings, or other experiences. So, this denotative meaning involves objective factual information. Therefore, the meaning of denotation is often referred to as 'true meaning' (Chaer, 1994). For example, women and women both have the same meaning, 'adult man is not male'.

A word is said to have connotative meaning when the word has "taste value", either positive or negative. If it has no sense value then it is said to have no connotation. But it can also be called a neutral connotation. Connotative meanings can also change over time. For example, the word lecture used to be a negative connotation because it means 'fussy', but now the connotation is positive.

E.     Classification (inclusion)

The classification of individuals into groups with similar language backgrounds is considered. The use made of Language Background questionnaires is analysed and three criticisms offered. These criticisms concern firstly, the varying nature and range of questions used; secondly, the inclusion of indirect language background questions, suggesting a distinction between the concepts of functional bilingualism and language background; and thirdly, previous methods of categorisation of individuals into groups using language background scores. Cluster analysis is suggested as a method of solving the problem of categorisation. Consideration of approaches to cluster analysis appears to recommend latent class analysis as the preferable method due to its ability to include missing data and its probabilistic structure. As an example, an analysis of the language background of 192 nine and ten year olds is presented using the latent class model. The three group solution is profiled, suggesting the existence of one Welsh group, one English group, and one group who use both languages, English in some contexts, Welsh in other contexts.

F.     Componential Analysist

The etymological meaning is different from the lexical meaning because it relates to the origin of the word and the change of the word meaning is seen from the historical aspect of the word. The etymological meaning of a word reflects the changes that occur with a particular word. Through changing the meaning of the word, can be traced changes in values, norms, socio-political circumstances, and the economic state of a society

These components or categories are not part of vocabulary of language itself, but rather theoretical elements ‘postulated in order to describe the semantic relation between the lexical elements of a given language’.  Within generative-transformational theory, meaning is studied through semantic features where they deep structures of a sentence and the meaning of words used in that structure together represent the total meaning of the sentence features mention the permissible relationship among words e.g. that is a good hope. In order to carry out a semantic analysis, we put it as: Hope = (noun-abstract-inanimate-non-human-uncount-definite) and comprehensive meaning emerges.

G.    Language And Logic

The formal patterns of correct reasoning can all be conveyed through ordinary language, but then so can a lot of other things. In fact, we use language in many different ways, some of which are irrelevant to any attempt to provide reasons for what we believe. It is helpful to identify at least three distinct uses of language:

1. The informative use of language involves an effort to communicate some content. When I tell a child, "The fifth of May is a Mexican holiday," or write to you that "Logic is the study of correct reasoning," or jot a note to myself, "Jennifer—555-3769," I am using language informatively. This kind of use presumes that the content of what is being communicated is actually true, so it will be our central focus in the study of logic.
2. An expressive use of language, on the other hand, intends only to vent some feeling, or perhaps to evoke some feeling from other people. When I say, "Friday afternoons are dreary," or yell "Ouch!" I am using language expressively. Although such uses don't convey any information, they do serve an important function in everyday life, since how we feel sometimes matters as much as—or more than—what we hold to be true.
3. Finally, directive uses of language aim to cause or to prevent some overt action by a human agent. When I say "Shut the door," or write "Read the textbook," or memo myself, "Don't rely so heavily on the passive voice," I am using language directively. The point in each of these cases is to make someone perform (or forswear) a particular action. This is a significant linguistic function, too, but like the expressive use, it doesn't always relate logically to the truth of our beliefs.

CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

Semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words, phrases and sentences, however, contrary to pragmatics it does not analyze the intended speaker meaning, or what words denote on a given occasion, but the objective, conventional meaning.

A sentence is a group of words that are put together to mean something. A sentence is the basic unit of language which expresses a complete thought. It does this by following the grammatical rules of syntax. An Utterance is any sound of talk, that human produce. To differentiate utterance and sentence, we usually use quotation mark (“….“) in written form of utterance. A Proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs. Besides declarative sentence, proposition also clearly involved in the meaning of interrogatives and imperative sentences.

Reference is relation between piece of language and the things in the world. A referent is concrete object or concept that is designated by a word or expression. Sense : its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. Sense consists of 'semantic properties'.

REFERENCES

Kitcher, Philip; Salmon, Wesley C. (1989). Scientific Explanation. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. p. 35.

Barsalou, L.; Perceptual Symbol Systems, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(4), 1999

Langacker, Ronald W. (1999). Grammar and Conceptualization. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyer. ISBN 3110166038.

Peregrin, Jaroslav (2003). Meaning: The Dynamic Turn. Current Research in the Semantics/Pragmatics Interface. London: Elsevier.